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Mind in society: The development of higher psychological processes. Thinking and speech. Carton Eds. Vygotsky, Volume 1: Problems of general psychology pp. New York: Plenum Press. Provide a variety of positive role models for students. How is cognitive theory used in the classroom? Examples of cognitive learning strategies include: Asking students to reflect on their experience. Helping students find new solutions to problems. Encouraging discussions about what is being taught.
Helping students explore and understand how ideas are connected. Asking students to justify and explain their thinking. Why is Piaget's theory so important? Piaget's theories and works are significant to people who work with children, as it enables them to understand that children's development is based on stages. The construction of identity and knowledge as one predicated upon the development of stages helps to explain the intellectual growth of children of all ages. What is the constructivist learning theory?
Constructivism is a learning theory found in psychology which explains how people might acquire knowledge and learn. It therefore has direct application to education. The theory suggests that humans construct knowledge and meaning from their experiences.
How did Jean Piaget impact education? The legacy of Jean Piaget to the world of early childhood education is that he fundamentally altered the view of how a child learns.
And a teacher, he believed, was more than a transmitter of knowledge she was also an essential observer and guide to helping children build their own knowledge. What is an example of ZPD? Instruction — The idea of scaffolding is the basis of instruction. Students can achieve their learning potential with guided instruction from their teacher. The teacher constantly reassesses the levels of achievement of the student and creates the next task as a building block to the goal.
As an added benefit, the student also learns problem-solving skills from performing leveled tasks on their own. Assessment — Evaluations are catered to each student based on their zone of proximal development. As teachers strive to see the potential level of cognitive development in all students, assessments must cover a range of abilities. Some students may achieve a higher level with support from their teacher than others.
See also: Inclusive Teaching Strategies. On a more practical note, many wonder how this type of learning can be implemented in schools. Scaffolding seems to be a cycle — the teacher is constantly evaluating the progress of a student throughout a learning activity and consistently responding according to their needs.
This means that the teacher adjusts the difficulty of the tasks and learning goals in order for the student to meet the expectations. The zone of proximal development indicates the level of task that the student can accomplish independently, which, in turn, demonstrates the actual activity that can be accomplished with guided support from the teacher. As they create learning goals, teachers must keep in mind the fact that each student will have unique personality traits that will affect their zones.
To summarize, students require many opportunities to demonstrate their point of learning in order for the teacher to create the next steps and support each need. The gradual release of responsibility, which we know as scaffolding, allows students to gain independence in learning tasks as they reach their goals. The teacher begins by offering a strong presence and close guidance; this may include demonstrations, facilitating activities, or explicit teaching of ideas.
As the student moves through the zone of proximal development towards the goal, the teacher gradually releases control to the student as they approach their level of potential learning. Vygotsky emphasizes two main points in the learning process. The first is culture, and the second is language. The most important point that emerges when we approach the flipped classroom using the Vygotsky theory is that the flipped classroom provides a suitable environment for transmission of culture.
The flipped classroom does this in two ways: 1 videos prepared as lesson content and 2 class time in which active learning methods are used. According to Vygotsky , , language is improved with social interactions carried out for communication purposes and has two roles that are critical for cognitive development.
The first role of language is that it is the means of transmission of knowledge of adults to the child, and the second is that language is single-handedly a very powerful means that provides for the child's intellectual harmony. This section will focus on the first role of language, because the second role pertains more to results of internal and external speech carried out by the individual Vygotsky, As a result of the individual's social interactions, their talks with others, their talks with themselves privately, and their internal talks are more related to cooperative learning, so they will be mentioned in that section.
In a flipped classroom, the teacher prepares lesson content as a video and puts it on the Internet. The students watch those videos in extracurricular time, and they gain lesson content.
Vygotsky emphasizes the importance of language in transmission of culture. The rules of society value judgments; in short, anything regarding social structure is structured in spoken language and transmitted to the child via language. Therefore, in a flipped classroom, lesson content, in other words, teaching programs prepared by the institutions, the values, rules, restrictions, and so on, to be transmitted to students, is transmitted via the videos.
As a more knowledgeable person, the teacher continues this role within the classroom and also carries this role to out-of-school time. A more knowledgeable person has an important role in a child's learning, in Vygotsky theory Vygotsky, In the traditional teaching-learning process, the teacher therefore managers cannot interfere in extracurricular time. At maximum, they present textbooks, workbooks, and Internet resources to students, and students process information by themselves in homework, activities, and project tasks.
However, in a flipped classroom, students watch videos in extracurricular time, and at this point, language plays an important role as a culture transmission tool. From this point of view, social structures and means direct the student both in the school environment and at home in a flipped classroom. The transmission of culture continues incessantly in and outside of school. Proposition 1: The flipped classroom utilizes the videos in extracurricular time as a means of culture transmission.
In social aspect, social structures, tools, and values are transmitted to students in extracurricular time. In a flipped classroom, it is important to engage active learning methods in the class time and use them Bishop and Verleger, ; Roehl et al. Active learning is an umbrella term that consists of the teaching methods focused on participation of students in the learning process and their loyalty Prince, However, in active learning process, students do not only learn on their own, but the teacher is also a guide in active learning, and the student's peers are also included in each other's learning process.
Vygotsky also argues that cognitive development is carried out via social interactions. He states that the learning process will continue more effectively as a result of interactions students engage in with peers that are more knowledgeable or adults e. The individual learns more effectively as a result of an interaction with more knowledgeable peers or adults. Moreover, it is based on the view that the individual can do things with the help of others without any help.
In a flipped classroom, in extracurricular time, the individual watches the lesson content videos prepared by an adult who is more knowledgeable teacher. If the active learning methods that encourage the individual to gather around with their peers and provide such an environment are used in class time, the individual's learning process will be positively impacted we hereby refer to cooperative learning.
When the individual carried out the upper-level cognitive studies, activities, and homework together with their peers, especially the students with lower levels of success will interact with peers who are more knowledgeable than they are and therefore will benefit from them within the context of ZPD.
Thus, if the flipped classroom's achievement is aimed according to Vygotsky theory, class time must be carried out with teaching methods that are based on active learning methods in which the students will work together as a group and benefit optimally from each other in terms of information.
At this point, cooperative learning method is one of the most suitable teaching methods that can be included in the flipped classroom, and this result is supported by the research in literature. Proposition 2: If we aim to benefit from the flipped classroom method to the maximum level according to Vygotsky theory, the active learning approaches that have students interact with their peers and that support group work must be preferred. Even though they lived in the same period, Lewin and Vygotsky conducted research on similar issues completely independent of and unbeknown to each other.
Vygotsky also conducted important research that empowers the theoretical framework of cooperative learning. In s, while several research projects on cooperative learning had already been made in Western literature, the works of Vygotsky were translated into English as late as Vygotsky entered the educational sciences literature of Europe and the United States after this date.
In his book entitled Mind in Society , translated into English in , Vygotsky approached humans as beings in interaction with other individuals as opposed to individual, lonely beings while explaining the cognitive development of humans. According to him, cognitive development is the skill of the individual to learn how to use suitable social tools e. He argues that a child learns to carry out simple cognitive activities such as basic perceptions, attention without awareness, etc.
Then they gain the upper-level skills by interacting with peers and teachers in a social environment. These upper-level skills are skills such as language, mind, problem-solving, and moral reasoning. Another concept Vygotsky worked on is internalization.
He defines internalization as the individual experiencing a thought, behavior, or attitude in a social environment for the first time and making this experience cognitively functional. He argues that the social interactions and cultural signs are important in an individual's learning process.
Individuals must get into social interaction with peers that are more competent and knowledgeable or their family—teachers in order to improve their own learning or learn a new subject. Using cultural signs for this interaction is very important Vygotsky, Zone of proximal development is one of Vygotsky's most important theories.
This section of the research will review the relation between ZPD and cooperative learning. In this review, Moll's three basic keys to understanding the Vygotsky theory will be evaluated in aspect of evaluation of positive dependency, face-to-face supportive interaction, assessment of group process, individual accountability, and interpersonal and small group skills, which are the basic characteristics of cooperative learning Johnson et al.
Moll stated that Vygotsky's ZPD theory depends on the understanding of three basic issues. These are holistic use of authentic activities, the need for social interaction, and the individual's process of change. According to Vygotsky, the process of working, learning, and teaching must be carried out holistically by teachers and must be realized via authentic activities. Authentic activities must be based on real-life situations and must be meaningful to the students.
Students must also feel the need to learn that subject Vygotsky, According to Vygotsky, students learn via the social interactions they engage in with their more competent peers or their teachers. Within this interaction, students who have newly acquired information from their more competent peers or teachers learn it directly through primary experience, by doing and living, and internalize it Vygotsky, This process is seen by Doolittle as the most important proof of social dependency.
Here, ZPD is not only single-sided according to students, peers, or teachers, but it is also interactive. Vygotsky argued that the objective of cognitive development is the change of the individual. According to him, ZPD is an ongoing change. As individuals learn and improve themselves, the interactions they go into with other individuals lead to culturally necessary changes in their behavior.
According to Doolittle , there is a very important relation between Vygotsky's views and positive dependency. Each individual is dependent on the other individuals in the society with regard to presentation of resources that will be beneficial for their cognitive development. The society is, in turn, responsible for enculturation of the individual, that is, transmission of the existing culture Valsiner, The correspondence of face-to-face interaction in Vygotsky theory is social mediation and enculturation.
Social mediation is the individual gaining information and skills via social interactions. Transmission of society's cultural signs to the individual and utilization of these signs by the individual in the learning process is defined as enculturation.
In Vygotsky theory, individuals are responsible for developing their own zones of proximal development. Each individual must learn within the lesson process and advance their own learning. For example, in group work, the individual must be able to repeat a skill they could do with the group yesterday by themselves and without help today Doolittle, In both cooperative learning and Vygotsky theory, interpersonal and small group skills are used.
In Vygotsky theory, individuals use cultural signs writing, pictures in social interactions. Cultural signs are important tools in the social mediation and enculturation process Vygotsky, ; Doolittle, According to Doolittle , assessment of the group process occupies a major place within ZPD because, in the ZPD process, both their peers and their teacher are responsible for the individual's learning.
Moreover, a learning goal that is even lower than the lower limit of ZPD level will be boring to the individual. On the other hand, a learning goal that is beyond the individual's ZPD level will be found very difficult by the individual and probably will not be achieved. In both possibilities, the individual will not be able to acquire the desired behavior. Therefore, it is very important to keep the learning goal within ZPD. The cooperative learning method was not developed by Vygotsky.
However, his approach is similar to the roots of the cooperative learning method. The five basic characteristics of cooperative learning positive dependency, face-to-face supportive interaction, individual accountability, interpersonal and small group skills, and assessment of group process are closely related to the three basic issues argued by Vygotsky, namely, holistic use of authentic activities, need for social interactions, and the individual's process of change.
Proposition 3: One of the major learning approaches that might carry Vygotsky's ZPD approach in teaching—learning process is the cooperative learning method. According to Tzuo , student-centered learning theories, and therefore the teaching methods that arise out of those theories, are heavily based on the cognitive constructivism theory of Piaget and social constructivism theory of Vygotsky. Both theories state that individuals structure information within themselves.
However, each theory explains how this structuring occurs differently. Vygotsky emphasized the importance of interaction between individuals in construction of information. He also stated that cultural-historical and personal factors are the basic elements of human development Tudge and Scrimsher, Zone of proximal development is one of the most important concepts in Vygotsky theory. According to Puntambekar and Hubscher , ZPD refers to the level or developmental rank, which students can achieve under suitable educational conditions.
Dockett and Perry state that the main difference between Piaget and Vygotsky is related to the direction of the impact of social interaction. In Piaget's theory, information is formed by the individual through experience.
This information is tested and edited within a social interaction process, whereas in Vygotsky theory, information is structured in the social structures within the cultural heritage in which the learning process does not occur and in the social relations Cole and Wertsch, ; Dockett and Perry, Schunk says that, in Vygotsky theory, the methods of interaction with the persons, objects, and institutions in students' world change their thoughts. Another difference between Piaget and Vygotsky occurs in explanation of developmental phases.
While Piaget explains developmental phases steadily, Vygotsky makes a more flexible and fluid explanation Blake and Pope, The cognitive development phases presented by Piaget have continuity and transformation and are viable for each person, although differing according to maturity, experience, and cultural conditions Ojose, Vygotsky utilizes ZPD to explain developmental phases and emphasizes that social impacts such as collaboration and structural ladder in learning are the most important concepts for explaining development Dockett and Perry, ; Vianna and Stetsenko, In the flipped classroom method, active learning methods are used in class time Bishop and Verleger, ; Roehl et al.
Active learning is an umbrella term that encompasses the teaching methods focused on participation of students in the learning process and their engagement Prince, Therefore, we can conclude that there is an active learning method in a flipped classroom and that it is shapes as a teaching method based on constructivist theories.
The cooperative learning method, dating back to a much older time and an older history of literature than the flipped classroom, is among the active learning methods Johnson et al.
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